Commentary & Analysis

OIL & GAS PIPELINES IN EUROPE

a. Key Oil Pipelines

• Druzhba Pipeline

The Druzhba Pipeline, also referred to as “the Friendship Pipeline” and “the Comecon Pipeline,” is one of the world's longest and largest oil pipeline networks.

The pipeline, which has been operating since 1964, has an annual capacity of around 50 million tons of crude oil, carried over 5,100 km, 25/28/32/40/47-inch pipes from the eastern part of European Russia to consuming points in Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Germany. The Druzhba pipeline network also branches out into numerous smaller pipelines to deliver crude oil throughout Eastern Europe and beyond.

• Transalpine Pipeline (TAL)

The 43-million-ton/year Transalpine Pipeline (TAL) is a crude oil pipeline that has connected Italy, Austria, Germany, and the Czech Republic since 1967. The 40-inch pipeline starts from the Italian terminal of Trieste before running 465 km through the Alps to Ingolstadt in Germany. Within Germany, one 26-inch, 21-km branch runs from Ingolstadt to Neustadt an der Donau, and another 26-inch, 266-km segment runs to Karlsruhe. In Vohburg, the Transalpine Pipeline connects to the IngolstadtKralupy-Litvínov pipeline, which supplies oil to refineries in the Czech Republic. This section has been used to reverse the flow of the southern branch of the Druzhba pipeline to supply Slovakia.

The Transalpine Pipeline (TAL) expansion, known as the TAL Plus project, was completed in April 2025 to increase the annual TAL capacity by 4 million tons, enabling the Czech Republic to fully eliminate its dependence on Russian oil. The roughly US$80 million investment adds new pump technology to transport more crude from Trieste to Central Europe.

• Adria Oil Pipeline

The 622-km, 34-million-ton/year, 20/26/28/36-inch Adria Oil Pipeline has connected Croatia to Central Europe since 1990. It starts at the Omišalj oil terminal on the Croatian coast, and from there, within Croatia, the main line runs to Sisak, while spur lines connect to a terminal and refinery in Urinj. In Sisak, the pipeline’s northern and eastern branches split.

The northern branch of the Adria oil pipeline runs further to Virje, where a section continues to Lendava in Slovenia and Gola and crosses the Croatian–Hungarian border. It continues through Hungary to the Duna refinery in Százhalombatta. There, it connects with the southern line of Druzhba Pipeline and its branch between Hungary and Slovakia.

The eastern branch of the Adria oil pipeline runs within Croatia from Sisak to Slavonski Brod. From there, the branch section continues to Bosanski Brod in Bosnia-Herzegovina, while the main line runs to the town of Sotin at the Croatian– Serbian border. In Serbia, the pipeline stretches to Novi Sad and further to Pančevo.

• South European Pipeline (SPPL)

The South European Pipeline (SPPL) is a crude oil pipeline system that connects the French terminal at Fos-sur-Mer on the Mediterranean Sea to refineries in France and Germany.

The main 769-km, 34-inch pipeline, which runs from the Fos terminal to Karlsruhe in Germany, became operational in 1962. Within France, another 714-km, 40-inch pipeline runs from Fos to Strasbourg, and a 260-km, 24-inch pipeline runs from Fos to Lyon. These pipelines became operational in 1971-72. The maximum annual discharge of the SPPL system is 35 million tons of crude oil.

b. Major Gas Pipelines

• Norway to Europe

Norway operates one of the world's largest subsea gas pipeline networks, spanning over 8,800 km to deliver natural gas to the European Union and the United Kingdom, providing around 30 percent of European gas imports. Key routes include Langeled to the United Kingdom, Europipe I & II to Germany, Zeepipe to Belgium, and the Åsgard Transport System within Norway.

The system has a large annual capacity of approximately 120 billion cubic meters of dry gas, with pipelines reaching depths of up to 1,300 meters. Norway is currently strengthening its pipeline infrastructure, including plans for renewed production in the Greater Ekofisk Area to maintain high supply levels to Europe.

• Baltic Pipe

The Baltic Pipe is a natural gas pipeline between Europipe II (which traverses the North Sea between Norway and Germany) and Poland. It is a strategic infrastructure project aimed at establishing a new European gas supply corridor and is thus recognized as a “Project of Common Interest of the European Union.” The 800/950- km, 39-inch pipeline, which includes a 275-km subsea pipeline from Denmark to Poland, became officially operational in September 2022.

The Baltic Pipe was conceived to allow gas flows in both directions. It is capable of pumping 10 billion cubic meters of gas annually from the North Sea to Poland, and up to 3 billion cubic meters from Poland to Denmark. The total cost of construction was around US$400 million.

• Southern Gas Corridor

The Southern Gas Corridor is a European Union initiative for transporting Caspian and Central Asian gas to Greece, Albania, Italy, and beyond. The goal of the Corridor is to reduce Europe's dependence on Russian gas and diversify energy supply sources.

The 3,500-km Southern Gas Corridor has the capacity to deliver between 60 and 120 billion cubic meters of Caspian and Central Asian gas directly to Europe annually. The main supply source is the Shah Deniz gas field offshore in Azerbaijan.

The corridor, which passes through Georgia, Turkiye, Greece, Albania, and Italy, consists of three main interlinked projects: (a) the 42/48-inch South Caucasus Pipeline extension (SCPx) through Azerbaijan and Georgia; (b) the 36/48/56-inch Trans-Anatolian Pipeline (TANAP) through Turkiye; and (c) the 35/47-inch Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) through Greece, Albania, and Italy.

• Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline (TransMed)

The Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline (TransMed), or “the Enrico Mattei Pipeline,” is a twin 3,600-km, 48-inch system transporting natural gas from Algeria’s Hassi R’Mel field to mainland Italy via Tunisia and Sicily. Operational since 1983, this critical infrastructure spans North Africa and the Mediterranean, boasting an annual capacity of over 30 billion cubic meters and enhancing European energy security.

In fact, TransMed, which also extends to Slovenia, serves as a vital energy corridor for Italy and the European Union, diversifying gas supplies, and has been particularly crucial during the recent energy shortages (due to the Russian-Ukrainian conflict since 2022 and the Gulf crisis since February 2026).

• Medgaz Pipeline

The Medgaz Pipeline, which was officially inaugurated in March 2011, starts at the Hassi R'Mel gas field in Algeria and runs in a first section to the Mediterranean town of Beni Saf. Another offshore segment begins at Beni Saf, with a landfall site at Perdigal Beach in the Spanish town of Almería, where it connects to the existing Almería-Albacete gas pipeline.

The Medgaz pipeline has an annual capacity of 10.7 billion cubic meters. It is 757 km long (547 km onshore and 210 km offshore) with various diameters of 24 and 48 inches.

• Maghreb-Europe Gas Pipeline (GME)

The Maghreb-Europe Gas Pipeline (GME), also known as “the Pedro Duran Farell Pipeline,” has been in operation since 1996 and connects Algeria to Spain via Morocco. The pipeline, which extends from Algeria's Hassi R'Mel gas field through Morocco to Cordoba in Spain, with connections to Portugal, is designed to transport roughly 12 billion cubic meters of natural gas annually. It has 22/28/32/48-inch pipes and runs for 522 km in Algeria and 760 km in Morocco, with a 57 km underwater section crossing the Strait of Gibraltar.

In November 2021, following diplomatic tensions, Algeria halted its gas supplies to Morocco through GME. Since then, the pipeline has been used in reverse flow to supply Morocco with LNG purchased on the international market which is then regasified in Spain.

• Green Stream Pipeline

The Green Stream Pipeline, part of the Western Libyan Gas Project, is a subsea gas pipeline running from Western Libya to the Italian island of Sicily. The gas supplies gathered at the Libyan coastal town of Mellitah from both the onshore Wafa field and the offshore Bahr Es-Salam structure started being pumped through the pipeline in October 2004.

The Green Stream is 520 km long, 32 inches in diameter, and has a maximum annual discharge capacity of 11 billion cubic meters. However, its operations have been sporadic since the overthrow of the Muammar Qaddafi regime in Tripoli in October 2011.

• Russia to Europe

- Nord Stream I & II

Nord Stream is a set of offshore gas pipelines that run under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Germany, providing Western Europe with natural gas. It was the first pipeline to bypass Ukraine and Poland, delivering Russian gas directly to Western Europe. It comprises two separate projects--Nord Stream I and Nord Stream II. Both pipelines begin in Russia and end in Germany’s Greifswald.

Nord Stream I and Nord Stream II each have an annual design capacity of 55 billion cubic meters of natural gas and are around 1,200 km long and 38/48/56 inches in diameter. Nord Stream I started operation in 2011, but Nord Stream II, which was completed in 2021, never entered service. The whole system was heavily damaged by explosions in 2022 and is currently inoperable.

- Blue Stream

The Blue Stream Pipeline is a 1,213 km, 25/47/55-inch gas pipeline transporting Russian gas directly across the Black Sea to Turkiye. It extends from Russia’s Izobilnoye, spanning around 396 km beneath the Black Sea at depths of over 2,150 meters before reaching the Turkish terminal of Samsun and then on to Ankara. Operational since 2003, it has an annual capacity of 16 billion cubic meters and serves as a crucial energy link for Turkiye.

Blue Stream was a pioneering deep-water project designed to diversify Russian gas exports to Turkiye, bypassing third-party transit countries. It is distinct from the newer Turk Stream pipeline, which also runs from Russia to Turkiye across the Black Sea.

- Turk Stream

Turk Stream is a twin 930-km, 32-inch natural gas pipeline running from Russia to Turkiye across the Black Sea, which became operational at the beginning of 2020. It starts at Russia’s Russkaya compression station near Anapa, goes offshore, and comes ashore in Turkiye’s Kıyıköy.

The two lines of Turk Stream have a total annual capacity of 31.5 billion cubic meters, with one branch line supplying Turkiye and the other running to the TurkishBulgarian border, transporting gas to Southeast Europe while bypassing Ukraine, thereby enhancing energy security there.

- Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhhorod Pipeline

The Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhhorod Pipeline (also known as the “Bratstvo Pipeline,” “Brotherhood Pipeline,” “West-Siberian Pipeline,” or “Trans-Siberian Pipeline”) was one of Russia's main natural gas export pipelines, partially owned and operated by Ukraine.

The 56-inch gas pipeline, built in 1983, runs 4,451 km (including 1,160 km on Ukrainian territory) and has a nominal annual capacity of 32 billion cubic meters. However, following Ukraine’s decision not to renew the gas transit agreement with Russia at the end of 2024, Moscow stopped exporting its gas through this pipeline.

c. Main Oil and Gas Pipeline Projects

• Trans-Saharan Gas Pipeline (TSGP) Project T

he Trans-Saharan Gas Pipeline (TSGP), or “the NIGAL Pipeline,” is a proposed 4,200-km, 48/56-inch-diameter infrastructure project designed to transport up to 30 billion cubic meters of gas annually from Nigeria to Europe via Niger and Algeria. The project, which is intended to boost regional economic development, diversify European energy supplies, and reduce reliance on Russian gas while securing a massive revenue boost for African participants, is estimated to cost around US$13 billion.

The TSGP route would start in the Warry region of Nigeria, cross through Niger, and end at Hassi R'Mel in Algeria, where it would connect to existing, established gas pipelines to Europe. After decades of delays, the project gained momentum in 2022. As of early 2026, feasibility studies on the TSGP have been updated, and the project is now considered technically ready despite ongoing financial and security challenges.

• Nigeria-Morocco Gas Pipeline (NMGP) Project

The Nigeria-Morocco Gas Pipeline (NMGP) is a planned 5,600/6,200-km, 48-inchdiameter, mostly offshore pipeline designed strategically to transport natural gas from Nigeria to North Africa and Europe, after crossing 13 West African countries. In fact, the pipeline is to start from Nigeria, running through the territorial waters of Benin, Togo, Ghana, the Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Gambia, Senegal, and Mauritania, before reaching Morocco and Spain.

Expected to cost roughly US$25 billion and pump 15-30 billion cubic meters of natural gas annually, the NMGP aims to boost regional economic integration and connect to European markets via Morocco. Nevertheless, the key challenges to this project include securing its financing, addressing regional security concerns (instability/insurgency in certain areas), and ensuring a consistent, reliable gas supply from Nigeria.

• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) was announced in 2023 as a US-backed multimodal infrastructure project linking India to Europe via the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Israel. Participants also include the European Union, France, Germany, and Italy. IMEC features rail lines, shipping lanes, and vital energy pipelines. It holds promise for long-term integration of energy networks and regional cooperation, although some countries, including Iraq and Oman, remain excluded from the main routes, while Egypt sees the project as a potential competitor to the Suez Canal.

A proposition for IMEC is the construction of a gas pipeline connecting the Middle East and Europe, with future expanded exports via the eventual LNG terminals in the Eastern Mediterranean. LNG is likely to remain a predominantly complementary option for the IMEC while pipelines remain a choice for more seamless, reliable, and cost-effective integration for Middle Eastern countries along the transport corridor. Nevertheless, the Gulf conflict that began in February 2026 has delayed the development of the project's action plan, with regional tensions complicating the normalization of ties between Israel and certain partners.

• East Mediterranean Gas Pipeline Project

The East Mediterranean (EastMed) Gas Pipeline was a planned offshore/onshore natural gas pipeline that would have directly connected the region’s energy resources to European markets. The project would have transported natural gas from offshore gas reserves in the Levantine Basin into mainland Greece via Cyprus and the island of Crete, and, in conjunction with the Poseidon pipeline and the Interconnector Greece–Bulgaria (IGB), into Italy and other European countries.

The 24/30/46/48-inch EastMed pipeline would have been around 1,900 km long and reached water depths of some 3,000 meters, with an annual capacity of 10-20 billion cubic meters. It was expected to cost about US$7 billion. However, following the withdrawal of American support in January 2022, and the continued objections by Turkiye, it is likely that the EastMed pipeline may be rerouted through Egypt (and possibly Libya) to bypass Cyprus, or canceled altogether.

B- OIL & GAS PIPELINES IN CENTRAL ASIA

a. Major Oil Pipelines

• Kazakhstan-China Oil Pipeline

The Kazakhstan-China Oil Pipeline is the first direct crude link allowing oil imports from Central Asia to China. It runs from the Kazakh Caspian shore to Xinjiang in China. The first section of the pipeline from oil fields in the Aktobe region to Atyrau, Kazakhstan, was completed in 2003. The second segment from Zhanaarka to Alashankou in China was inaugurated in late 2005, while the third Kenkiyak– Kumkol section (within Kazakhstan) became operational in mid-2009.

The nominal annual capacity of the 794-km, 32-inch Kazakhstan-China oil pipeline is around 20 million tons. The cost of building the project totaled US$726 million.

• Caspian Pipeline Consortium (CPC)

The Caspian Pipeline Consortium (CPC) operates a 1,511-km oil pipeline channeling crude from Western Kazakhstan fields (Tengiz, Kashagan, and Karachaganak) to Russia’s Novorossiysk loading terminal on the Black Sea. It started operation in 2001 at a total cost of US$2.6 billion before being expanded twice, in 2017 and 2021.

The 40/42-inch CPC pipeline is critical for international energy supply with an annual capacity of roughly 67 million tons. It is vital to the Kazakh economy, responsible for around 80 percent of its crude oil exports.

• Baku-Novorossiysk Pipeline

The Baku-Novorossiysk Pipeline (also known as “the Northern Route Export Pipeline” and “the Northern Early Oil Pipeline”) is an oil pipeline that has been running since 1997 from Sangachal near Baku to the Novorossiysk loading port on Russia’s Black Sea coast.

The crude oil transported through the Baku-Novorossiysk pipeline is developed under the Early Oil Project, the first stage of a larger Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli (ACG) scheme. The 1,330-km pipeline has an annual capacity of 5-7 million tons through a 28-inch-diameter pipe.

• Baku-Supsa Pipeline

The Baku-Supsa Pipeline (also known as “the Western Route Export Pipeline” and “the Western Early Oil Pipeline”) is a 833-km, 5-7-million tons/year, 21-inch oil pipeline, which has been running since 1998 from Sangachal near Baku to the Supsa loading terminal on the Georgian Black Sea coast. It transports oil from the development project of the Azeri-Chirag-Gunashli (ACG) structure. The total cost of constructing the pipeline and terminal was US$556 million.

After an expansion program in 2002 and following numerous pumping-related technical difficulties and various attacks on the pipeline, which raised serious security concerns, Azeri crude oil exports have been rerouted since 2022 to the much larger Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline.

• Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline (BTC)

The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline (BTC) is a 1,768-km, 30/42/46-inch crude pipeline operational since 2006, that transports oil and condensates from Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan to the Mediterranean. It runs from Sangachal, near Baku in Azerbaijan, through Tbilisi in Georgia to Ceyhan in Turkiye. Its development cost a total of US$3.6 billion.

BTC enables the bypassing of the crowded Bosporus Straits and reduces reliance on Russian export routes. It has an annual capacity of 50 million tons and primarily transports Azeri crude oil from the Azeri-Chirag-Gunashli (ACG) structure, and pumps condensate from the Shah Deniz field. In addition, the BTC is increasingly used to export Kazakh oil and to access Mediterranean markets.

b. Key Gas Pipelines

• Central Asia-China Gas Pipeline System

The Central Asia-China Gas Pipeline (also known as “the Turkmenistan-China Gas Pipeline”) is a pipeline system that transports gas from Turkmen fields to Xinjiang, China. By connecting Turkmenistan to China's domestic grid, this US$11-billion, 3- line pipe makes it possible for gas from Turkmenistan to ultimately reach the main industrial city in China, Shanghai. More than half of Turkmen natural gas exports are delivered to China through this pipeline.

The 42-inch first line (A) of the Central Asia-China Gas Pipeline system was completed in 2009 with an annual capacity of 15 billion cubic meters. The second line (B) had a similar diameter and capacity and was inaugurated in 2010. The 48- inch third line (C) began operations in 2024 with a notably larger annual capacity of 25 billion cubic meters. With a total length of 5,511 km for the three main lines, this is the longest pipeline network in Central Asia. The construction of a 966-km fourth line (D) was launched at the end of 2014, but no date has been set yet for its final completion.

• Central Asia-Center Gas Pipeline System (CAC)

The Central Asia-Center Gas Pipeline System (CAC) is a major 4,892-km, 30/40/50/56-inch pipeline network, transporting natural gas from fields in Turkmenistan’s Ahal Province through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to Saratov Oblast in Russia. The five-line CAC system is considered the primary artery for Central Asian gas to Russia.

Operating since the 1960s, with a major expansion in the 1980s, the CAC currently has an annual capacity of around 44 billion cubic meters, which could potentially be doubled. Nevertheless, the system is now seeing, in some parts, a reversal of flows aimed at transporting Russian gas to Uzbekistan.

• Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India Pipeline (TAPI)

The Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India Pipeline (TAPI) is a 1,800-km, 56- inch, US$10-billion project, currently under construction, projected to pump 33 billion cubic meters of natural gas annually from the Turkmen Galkynysh field through Afghanistan (Herat/Kandahar) and Pakistan (Quetta/Multan) before terminating at Fazilka in India.

Although construction in Afghanistan began in late 2024, security issues and financing challenges are still keeping the full operational future of the TAPI project uncertain. In fact, ongoing instability in Afghanistan remains the primary risk to the pipeline's construction and operation. In addition, tensions between India and Pakistan, as well as the need for international recognition and security guarantees for the project, are ongoing factors impacting its timeline.

• Iran-Armenia Gas Pipeline

The Iran-Armenia Gas Pipeline is a 140-km-long line from Tabriz to Kajaran. The 100-km-long Iranian section runs from Tabriz to the Iran–Armenia border, while the 40-km Armenian segment connects the Meghri border region to the town of Kajaran. Another 197 km of pipeline is planned to reach the center of Armenia, where it will link to the country’s existing gas distribution network.

The 28-inch gas pipeline, which started operations in December 2006 at a total cost of about US$220 million, has an annual capacity of 2.3 billion cubic meters of gas. According to press reports, the two countries are in discussions about building a second, parallel gas pipeline.

• Iran-Turkiye Gas Pipeline

The 2,577-km, 40/46-inch Iran-Turkiye Gas Pipeline runs from the Iranian town of Tabriz to Ankara, the capital city of Turkiye. Operational since 2001, it has a total annual capacity of 14 billion cubic meters.

The pipeline, which has been a frequent target, with many attacks attributed to Kurdish militants, remains a critical but uncertain energy link for Turkiye. With a 25-year Iran-Turkiye gas supply contract for 9.6 billion cubic meters annually expiring in July 2026, Ankara seems to be contemplating its renewal to secure the resulting gas supplies despite regional volatility.

Dr. Naji Abi-Aad Senior Advisor, Energy Studies June 2026